Contractions and apostrophes are unique to a small number of the world’s languages. French uses them, and even Portuguese and Russian have contractions to a certain degree for convenience, but English really ‘goes to town’ with them! Contractions alter tone, formality and meaning within communication. From the commonly used can’t and won’t to the more complex contractions like shouldn’t’ve, they are a linguistic shortcut and play a significant role in the expression of the English language, seemingly reflecting in writing how one might speak informally.
This article looks at contractions, possessives and their mechanics, and sheds some light on the art of striking a balance between casual speech and formal writing.
What is a contraction?
A contraction is when two or more words are compressed into one word. Frequently an apostrophe ‘ is used to mark the exclusion of a number of letters, but sometimes a contraction is formed without an apostrophe:
- will not = won’t
- is not = isn’t
- he is = he’s
- we have = we’ve
- going to = gonna
- want to = wanna
Contractions vary greatly from one region to another. Some contractions that are habitually used in other Englishes are not acceptable or commonplace in UK English, such as y’all in US English, and g’day in Australian and New Zealand English. Likewise, certain contractions that are used within the UK are characteristic of specific dialects and can sound strange when used by people of other extraction. There are also contractions (such as t’was = it was and e’er = ever) that are archaic and have gone out of use, but can still be read in literature from past ages.
Note that a contraction is only one form of ‘abbreviation’, a shortened form of a word or phrase. Others include:
Acronyms = abbreviations that can be spoken as a word:
- NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration
- SCUBA = self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
- PIN = personal identification number
Initialisms = abbreviations that cannot be spoken as a word:
- UK = United Kingdom
- DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid
- NHS = National Health Service
Crasis = representing a word by its first letter or letters:
- Co = Company
- Bros = Brothers
- Ltd = Limited
- St = Street
It used to be customary to place a full stop after crases, but in the UK this is no longer the case; it is outmoded. In fact, already in 1844, punctuators were choosing to omit the full stop after many standard abbreviations.
Possessives = indicating ownership using an apostrophe and an s:
- James’s book
- Sarah’s home
- The dog’s bones (the bones of one dog)
- The dogs’ bones (the bones of more than one dog)
- The people’s princess
- The children’s toys
In many languages, an apostrophe is used before an s to indicate plurality, and a possessive is written with an s and without an apostrophe, so it is especially important for students with such mother tongues to be aware that using an apostrophe in English grammar to denote plurality is always unacceptable.
Taking a shortcut
Contractions are mainly used in English for efficiency, informality, and natural rhythm and ease of pronunciation. Contractions help both speakers and writers convey ideas more quickly. By combining two or more words into one, communication becomes smoother, especially in casual conversations where rapid exchange of information is important. When used appropriately, contractions can help strike a balance between formality and approachability. In writing, this can be particularly useful in creating engaging narratives or relatable content that reflects how people naturally speak and communicate.
Whether spoken or written, contractions mirror the natural rhythm and flow of spoken language and provide writers with stylistic choices. They contribute to the cadence of speech and make dialogue sound more authentic because they arise from the natural way people pronounce certain word combinations. Using contractions can make speech easier to produce and articulate, and frequently speakers may be unaware that they are using them.
Contractions also help avoid repetition of common words or sounds. For example, instead of saying “do not” multiple times in a sentence, using “don’t” conveys the same meaning without redundancy. Similarly, a writer or speaker’s choice to avoid contractions presents a tone of formality.
Contractions in English serve as a linguistic tool that enhances communication by streamlining speech, reflecting natural language patterns and adding depth to written expression. They contribute to the richness and flexibility of the language, catering to various levels of formality and social contexts.
Contractions in the English language originated around the late Middle English period (1400 – 1500 AD), when contractions such as can’t (from ‘cannot’) and won’t (from ‘will not’) began to appear in written texts, and they became more prevalent as the language continued to evolve. Doubtless, spoken contractions would have featured in the English language, naturally, far earlier than this period.
A list of contractions
Here is a list of the most common contractions encountered in UK English. There are hundreds of contractions and dozens of possible combinations with varieties of nouns, pronouns, interrogative pronouns (how, where, what, why, etc.) and modal verbs being the main candidates for shortening. The apostrophe originated in Europe, in the 1500s, and its first use was to indicate the omission of a vowel from the beginning or ending of a word (such as heav’n, and desir’st ) and although the apostrophe began to be used to denote the possessive during the seventeenth century, its correct use for this was still under discussion until the late 1800s.
Nowadays, apostrophes in contractions are slightly less prevalent and less acceptable in writing than they were in the late Middle Ages, but every dialect has invented and continues to invent its own contractions all the time, and these are the main culprits:
- ain’t = is not (informal slang)
- anybody’s = anybody has/is (can also be possessive)
- anyone’s = anyone has/is (can also be possessive)
- anything’s = something has /is (can also be possessive)
- aren’t = are not
- ’bout = about (informal)
- can’t = cannot
- ’cause = because (informal)
- could’ve = could have (informal)
- couldn’t = could not
- couldn’t’ve = could not have (informal)
- cuppa = cup of (e.g. tea)
- daren’t = dare not
- didn’t = did not
- doesn’t = does not
- dunno = do not know (informal)
- d’you = do you (informal)
- ’em = them (informal)
- everybody’s = everybody has/is (can also be possessive)
- everyone’s = everyone is/has (can also be possessive)
- everything’s = everything is/has (can also be possessive)
- gimme = give me (informal)
- gonna = going to (informal)
- gotta = got to (informal)
- hadn’t = had not
- had’ve = had have (informal)
- hasn’t = has not
- he’d = he had/ he would
- he’ll = he shall/ he will
- he’s = he has/ he is
- here’s = here is
- how’d = how did/ how would (informal)
- how’ll = how will/ how shall (informal)
- how’re = how are (informal)
- how’s = how is/ how has
- I’d = I had/ I would
- I’d’ve = I would have (informal)
- I’ll = I shall/ I will
- I’m = I am
- innit (informal slang) = isn’t it (informal slang)
- isn’t = is not
- it’d = it had/ it would
- it’ll = it shall/ it will
- it’s = it has/ it is (never possessive)
- I’ve = I have
- kinda = kind of (informal slang)
- let’s = let us
- ma’am = madam
- mayn’t = may not
- mayn’t’ve = may not have (informal)
- may’ve = may have
- mightn’t = might not
- mightn’t’ve = might not have (informal)
- might’ve = might have
- mine’s = mine is/has
- mustn’t = must not
- mustn’t’ve = must not have (informal)
- must’ve = must not have
- ‘neath = beneath
- needn’t = need not
- needn’t’ve = need not have (informal)
- ne’er = never
- o’clock = of the clock
- o’er = over
- one’s = one has/ one is (can also be possessive)
- oughtn’t = ought not
- ought’ve = ought have
- ’round = around
- shan’t = shall not
- she’d = she had/would
- she’ll = she shall/will
- she’s = she has/is
- shouldn’t = should not
- shouldn’t’ve = should not have (informal)
- should’ve = should have
- somebody’s = somebody has/is (can also be possessive)
- someone’s = someone has/is (can also be possessive)
- something’s = something has /is (can also be possessive)
- so’re = so are (informal)
- so’s = so is/ so as (informal)
- so’ve = so have (informal)
- that’d = that would/had
- that’ll = that shall/will
- that’re = that are (informal)
- that’s = that is/has
- there’d = there would/had
- there’ll = there shall/will
- there’s = there has/ is
- these’d = these would/had (informal)
- these’re = these are
- these’ve = these have
- they’d = they had/ would
- they’d’ve = they would have (informal)
- they’ll = they shall/will
- they’re = they are
- they’ve = they have
- those’re = those are (informal)
- those’ve = those have (informal)
- ’tis = it is
- ’twas = it was
- ‘tween = between
- ’twere = it were
- wanna = want to (informal slang)
- wasn’t = was not
- we’d = we had
- we’d’ve = we would have (informal)
- we’ll = we shall/will
- we’re = we are
- weren’t = were not
- we’ve = we have
- whatcha = what are you (doing) (informal)
- what’d = what did/would (informal)
- what’ll = what will/shall
- what’re = what are/were (informal)
- what’s = what has/is/does
- what’ve = what have (informal)
- when’s = when has/is
- where’d = where would/did (informal)
- where’ll = where shall/ where will
- where’s = where is
- where’ve = where have (informal)
- which’d = which had/would
- which’ll = which will/shall
- which’re = which are (informal)
- which’ve = which have
- who’d = who would/had/did
- who’d’ve = who would have
- who’ll = who will/shall
- who’re = who are
- who’s = who is/ who has/ who does (never possessive)
- who’ve = who have
- why’d = why did/why would (informal)
- why’re = why are
- why’s = why is/has
- won’t = will not
- wouldn’t = would not
- wouldn’t’ve = would not have (informal)
- would’ve = would have
- y’know = you know (informal)
- you’d = you would/did
- you’d’ve = you would have (informal)
- you’ll = you will/shall
- you’re = you are
- you’ve = you have
- when’d = when did/would (informal)
- the girl’s/ the dog’s = as in the girl is… the dog has… or any noun of your choice
You will have noted that some contractions, such as one’s and everybody’s can not only represent an abbreviation of ‘one is’ or ‘one has’, but also appear with an apostrophe when written in their possessive form. This is a matter for a reader or listener to discern according to context. Note that while some contractions such as can’t and won’t can appear in less formal writing acceptably, very informal contractions such as so’ve and shouldn’t’ve are only acceptable in writing if one is portraying dialogue in a work of fiction or writing a very informal letter to a friend.
Is it appropriate to use contractions in academic work?
The use of contractions in academic work largely depends on the level of formality and the specific guidelines of the institution or style guide being followed. In highly formal and technical contexts, such as scholarly articles, research papers and dissertations, it is generally recommended to avoid all contractions. This helps to maintain a professional and objective tone, enhancing the precision and clarity of the writing.
However, in more informal academic writing, such as personal essays, reflections, or certain types of classroom assignments, judicious use of the less colloquial contractions might be acceptable. It can make the writing feel more relatable and engaging, helping to establish a connection between the writer and the reader. Nevertheless, it is important to adhere to guidelines provided by instructors or institutions, whether educators or publishers, to ensure that the tone and style align with the intended purpose of the work.
Conclusion
In conclusion, one must embrace contractions for fluidity, but know when to wield formality. Finding the balance will empower both writers and speakers in effective communication, from casual chats to formal prose, and enrich one’s expressive arsenal.
Exercises to practise
Have a go at the practice exercises below to see whether you place your apostrophes correctly.
If you have any questions or comments, please do add them below.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation (Profile Books, 2016)
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 3rd edn (Cambridge University Press, 2019)
Dreyer, Benjamin. Dreyer’s English: An Utterly Correct Guide to Clarity and Style (Penguin Random House, 2020)
Gwynne, N. M. Gwynne’s Grammar: The Ultimate Introduction to Grammar and the Writing of Good English (Ebury Press/Random House, 2013)
Heffer, Simon. Strictly English: The Correct Way to Write and Why it Matters (Windmill Books/Random House, 2010)
Hewings, Martin, and others. Cambridge English Grammar and Vocabulary for Advanced (Cambridge University Press, 2015)
Huddleston, Rodney, and others. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
Parrott, Martin. Grammar for English Language Teachers, 2nd edn (Cambridge University Press, 2011)
Quirk, Randolph, and others. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, reprint edn (Pearson, 2011)
Seely, John. Oxford A – Z of Grammar & Punctuation (Oxford University Press, 2020)
Trask, R. L. The Penguin Guide to Punctuation (Penguin Books, 1997)
New Hart’s Rules: The Handbook of Style for Writers and Editors (Oxford University Press, 2005)
What a fun read! This article about contractions is like uncovering the secret code of English. Who knew that these tiny word combos could shape our communication so much? Learning how contractions add personality and rhythm to speech, while also making things super efficient, is just mind-blowing. And that list of common contractions? Pure gold! Thanks for shedding light on these cool language hacks!
Thanks so much, Liam. I’m so glad you like the post.
This article provides a fascinating exploration of contractions in UK English, shedding light on their importance in communication. The variety of contractions covered, from the commonly used to the more complex, showcases how they serve as linguistic shortcuts, altering tone, formality, and meaning within language. I’m curious about the cultural and regional implications of contractions. The mention of contractions unique to specific dialects and their potential to sound strange to outsiders piques my interest. Have there been instances where the use of certain contractions has led to misunderstandings or misinterpretations between speakers of different dialects?
Hi Ashley. Thank you so much for your comments.
Yes, instances of misunderstandings or misinterpretations between speakers of different dialects due to contractions do commonly occur. For instance, the contraction ‘I’d’ can be understood as ‘I had’ although it is more commonly used to mean ‘I would’. This difference tends to lead to confusion when discussing past events or expressing conditional statements.
Additionally, as you suggested, those contractions not listed that are used in dialects other to whichever region an individual comes from are not easily understood by speakers from elsewhere!
I found this article fascinating. I love learning about the English language and its origins etc. I am English, living in England and have spoken English all of my life but I am still amazed at some of the complexities of our language. With regards to contractions, I have always hesitated over the apostrophe for possession with regards to words ending in s. For example, you wrote James’s book – I have seen it written like this many times but is there any instance where James’ book is acceptable? (Not adding the second ‘s’) If not, I may have been doing it wrong for many years! :/
Thanks again for the very detailed and informative article.
Elaine
Hi Elaine. Many thanks for your comments and for your question:
According to many grammar teachers, either option would indeed be correct: James’s or James’. But, according to most official UK English style guides, including the most reputable: ‘Harts Rules’ by Oxford University Press, an apostrophe with an -s should be used except for in cases where an additional -s would cause difficulty in pronunciation.
So, the rule is to write the possessive how you would say it. I personally would say “Jameses book” or “Charleses book”, as most people do, which is why it really ought to be written as James’s/Charles’s.